The era in which Philip Mazzei lived, which coincides with the birth and assertion of enlightenment ideals, is full of significant milestones, which each in its own way has helped to give a new connotation to the history of various countries:

 

1748

Peace of Aachen. After the War of the Austrian Succession Maria Teresa is recognised as Empress of the Holy Roman Empire.

1750

Benjamin Franklin invents the lightning rod.

1759

In Austrian Lombardy the compilation of the register of landed property starts.

1763

Peace of Paris. After the Seven Years War the French lose their colonies in North America.

1764

Cesare Beccaria publishes, in Milan, “Of Crimes and Punishment”, a savage indictment against torture and capital punishment.
In England the M.P. John Wilkes is thrown out of the House of Commons for his violent criticism of the government and King.

1764/1766

The English parliament imposes a tax on sugar, and then stamp duty and a tax on tea and other commercial restrictions on American colonials which they reply to with the chant “no taxation without representation”.

1765

Pietro Leopoldo di Lorena, son of Maria Teresa of Austria, becomes the Grand Duke of Tuscany and as an enlightened and open sovereign, he makes many important reforms.

1768

In England Richard Arkwright invents the mechanic spinning wheel.

1772

In France the last of the 28 volumes of the Encyclopaedia is published.

1773

In Boston, a few American patriots, dressed up as Indians, empty and throw out to sea the cargo of tea from an English ship.

1776

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 4th July: The Declaration of Independence for the United States on behalf of 13 North American British colonies.

1777

The Battle of Saratoga. The American army beat the English.

1783

Peace of Versailles. United States independence. The Mongolfier brothers complete their first hot-air balloon flight.

1788

In Philadelphia the new American Constitution is approved.

1789

Paris, 14th July: The French Revolution starts at the Bastille.

1793

The French royals Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette are sent to the guillotine. In the United States Eli Whitney invents the cotton gin. Poland is divided up between Austria, Prussia and Russia.

1796/1797

The French army under Napoleon invade the Italian states.

1796

In England Edward Jenner discovers a vaccine for small pox.

1799

In Italy Alessandro Volta invents the electric battery.

1799/1815

Period of Napoleonic domination in mainland Europe.

1803

Under Jefferson’s presidency the United States acquires from Napoleon the territory of Louisiana for the sum of 15 million dollars.

1815

“Restoration”. Europe recovers the political structure preceding the Napoleonic invasions.

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